Form and abstraction in 20th century (Western) art

The term "abstract" in art comes from the Latin word abstractus, meaning "drawn away" or "detached." Abstract art moves away from representing reality. It has significantly influenced the art world and has been used in literature. Despite some misunderstandings, abstraction has remained an iconic force in art history. In the 20th century, almost every artist produced at least one abstract piece.

Modern abstraction in Western art can be traced back to the early 19th century when radical changes in scientific understanding profoundly impacted societal consciousness. Einstein's theory of relativity and Bohr's quantum interpretations shattered the traditional view of a singular, objective reality. These groundbreaking theories introduced a more complex and multi-faceted understanding of the universe, influencing science and how artists and thinkers engaged with the world. Realizing that reality could not be fully comprehended through fixed perspectives led to innovation in art, where abstraction became a powerful tool for exploring realms beyond the physical and perceptual.

The devastation of World War I further fueled this shift in creative expression. The war's brutal destruction of human lives and values left an indelible mark on the collective psyche. Artists grappling with this existential trauma sought to explore and express realms beyond the material world. In its early stages, abstract art emerged as a response to this desire to transcend the mortal frame and search for deeper truths.

In the early stages of abstract art, artists grappled with the balance between formlessness and form. Many still aimed to ground their work in recognizable shapes, ideas, and identities. For instance, Pablo Picasso's exploration of Cubism deconstructed reality into fragmented perspectives, offering a new way of seeing while maintaining some connection to the material world. This struggle mirrored the broader human dilemma of reconciling the known and the unknown, the tangible and the intangible.
Religious and spiritual beliefs influenced the development of early abstract art. Faith often provides a framework through which individuals and societies comprehend existence. In this sense, abstraction in art and science reflects the human quest to understand the universe beyond the material realm. The tumultuous events of World War I revealed the fragility and futility of material existence, prompting artists and thinkers to explore abstract concepts to transcend this harsh reality.

Despite the potential for abstraction to offer new insights, human curiosity in pursuing the eternal has often grappled with breaking free from formal constraints. Physical form is relative—merely an enclosure or a set of coordinates within the universe. In this context, the contributions of artists like Jackson Pollock and the abstract expressionists are particularly noteworthy. Abstract expressionism emerged in post-World War II America and represented a departure from the form-driven art of earlier periods. Pollock's work, characterized by its lack of objectivity and meaning, pushed the boundaries of abstraction, creating a new mode of expression that transcended traditional artistic conventions.

Interestingly, abstract expressionism originated in America—a nation relatively untouched by the physical and psychological devastation that Europe experienced during the war. This artistic movement, unburdened by the weight of reconstruction and mechanization, could delve into pure abstraction, free from the need for form or meaning. However, even in its most radical forms, abstract expressionism still made a statement within the context of national and cultural identities.

As abstraction evolved, it departed from traditional art, material, and style concepts. Modernism, conceptual art, and postmodernism embraced this newfound freedom, often aligning with broader social movements like hippie culture. Yet, despite their innovative approaches, these movements frequently reverted to orchestrated manipulations of form. In any orchestrated manipulation, the form retains an external attribute, which merely supplements the subject rather than constituting the essence of abstraction.

Accurate abstraction, in theory, involves distilling the essence of a subject rather than attributing external meaning to it. This can be likened to extracting the purest form of a subject, much like extracting sweetness from sugar. Abstraction should transcend form and meaning, offering insight into the underlying reality of existence.

Philosophers and scientists have long explored the "observer-observation-observed" algorithm in their pursuit of knowledge. In art, however, achieving accurate abstraction has been a challenge. Artists like Pollock and the abstract expressionists made strides in exploring inner and outer realms, but accurate abstraction has often been limited by human perception and the need for form.
Similar struggles can be seen in Oriental art forms that have inspired Western developments. While these art forms show innovation and creativity, they can also become constrained by manipulations of form, whether as new creations or protests for or against the subject.

In conclusion, abstract art has been crucial in transcending the material world and exploring deeper realms of existence. However, the quest for accurate abstraction remains an ongoing challenge. While artists like Pollock and the abstract expressionists have made significant contributions, the tension between form and formlessness continues to shape the evolution of abstract art. As human consciousness evolves, so will our understanding and expression of abstraction in art, science, and philosophy.

Performance art installation

Theory states that "performance art can encompass any situation involving four fundamental elements: time, space, the performer's body, and a relationship between the performer and the audience." The roots of performance art can often be traced back to the Dada movement, and it has remained a significant aspect of the twentieth century's artistic landscape. Looking back, one may perceive performance art as a response to the reduction of human existence to mechanical operations, as its primary focus has consistently revolved around the artist's interaction with fellow human beings rather than the objects in their surroundings.

An artist doesn't create another object, such as an art piece, in their situation; instead, they generate an idea or an expression to define their art. In this context, time, space, and the artist's body become essential elements of artistic expression. In contrast, installation art, as per theory, is defined as "the artistic creation in which the artist transforms an area, a situation, or a space using material objects to define the relationship between humans and objects."

In installation art, the artist often considers the viewer's sensory experience over elements like time, space, or the artist's body. To better understand this art form, we can view it in the context of the ongoing mechanization of human life, where the objects of mechanization or contextual interventions have deeply impacted personal human life. As the industrial revolution reduced human capabilities to mere operations, and with the emergence of nanotechnology, questions arise about the "presence of human existence" in a material world that's shrinking to zero size, with even operations becoming increasingly detached from human abilities. Simultaneously, technological innovations like TVs, cell phones, digital cameras, computers, and printing inundate us with countless self-imposing visual images, effectively becoming large installed objects in our human existence.

Given this backdrop, it becomes crucial for art to define its domain clearly. Monumental installations that blow up the microscopic world as a protest against the nano-culture, as currently practiced, are becoming irrelevant, as they are seen as part of the problem itself and do not depict or address the human condition. Additionally, within the complex landscape of human existence in the computer age, where mechanization itself has taken on a life of its own, as seen in the internet and computers, which have direct consequences for human life, relying solely on performing art may not be sufficient to represent or express art in its entirety.

Taking these ideas into consideration, it is time for art to explore new dimensions. One such effort is the fusion of performing art and installation art, known as "performing art installation."

Practice: Performing Art Installation

The challenge in this art form lies in defining, deriving, and expressing the human condition within life and context. Performance may occur in the "absentia" of the performer, symbolizing the elimination of the human race by technology, even at the "operator" level. Meanwhile, digital visual imaging gives the illusion of self-importance. For instance, techniques such as wrapping up the performer or deliberately eliminating the "visibility" of the performer's body have been explored in this art form. Silence serves as the sound, and natural shadows provide the lighting. With each installation, the artist retains the right to derive thematic, artistic, and aesthetic perspectives and meanings. The installation remains open-ended, allowing viewers to interpret it from their own perspectives, even if that means ridiculing the entire performing art installation. In other words, the entire creation should always remain an open-ended ideation, preserving the viewer's prerogative. The complete formation should be free of distracting objects, sounds, and lighting to isolate the objective, relying instead on "conceptual" placements of objects, time, and space (in contrast to non-conceptual objects in traditional installation art).

Concept:

Our silent performance art invites viewers to actively participate. When viewers encounter the installation, they become spectators. Upon pausing with curiosity and inquiry, they become integral to the installation. As they engage with the idea, either by accepting it (becoming witnesses, conscious actors) or rejecting it (still witnesses, but passive actors), they begin enacting the drama by carrying the idea. While artists remain motionless and silent, discussions and judgments occur.

Burn Doors – First Performing Art Installation

Venue:

Faculty of Arts and Humanities,

CEPT University,

Commerce six roads,

Navrangpura,

Ahmedabad.

Date: 02.02.2009

Time: 10.30 am to 6 Pm

Participants: Narendra Raghunath, Hansil Dabhi

Every door beckons us into an enclosure, yet we often find ourselves passing through doors in search of freedom. Behind each door, we encounter a belief, a faith, a culture, a heritage, an ideology, complete with conventions and promises of a brighter tomorrow. Burn doors...

(We extend our sincere gratitude to the Faculty, Mrs. Sharmila Sagara, Mrs. Suchitra Sheth, and Dr. Seema Kanwalkar for their wholehearted support. Their effective pre-installation communication contributed to the success of the show. We thank them for voicing our thoughts to our viewers as we remained silent throughout the day.)

Review of Performance Art Installation in Times of India dated 03.02.2009 by Mr. S D Desai

Modern practitioners of art confront form and sometimes the conventional aspect of meaning underlying a concept. In the process, at times, they dramatically blur lines of demarcation between art forms. Two postgraduate students of arts and communication at the new premises of CEPT’s Faculty of Arts and Humanities near Commerce Six-Roads did that with a piece of performance art installation Burn Doors’.An unusual spectacle greeted invitees, visitors and passers-by right at the gate the entire day on Sunday. On the right of a rostrum covered fully snow white was a navy blue door slightly damaged at the top. In the centre were statues of two human figures covered with faded yellow sheets of cloth. A closer look revealed them to be two still and mute persons, represented by two students, Narendra and Hansil.At their feet were a variety of books, fiction, mathematics, yellow pages and all open, but their pages half burnt. Thick large borders of pure white enclosed the rostrum area. The word performance’ roused anticipation, but there was no movement, no sound. Those who had gathered round the novel work of art started figuring out keenly what it signified!Portals to conventional preserves of knowledge a library, a shrine, a heritage site, a museum, for example do not open to infinite knowledge and wisdom. They lead to enclosures within enclosures. The performance art installation, involving space, time, performer and viewer, stops at making the statement. The viewer, normally a passive one at a gallery, gets animated and activated for a participatory experience.Sneaking up to performers when they were left alone, I tried to assess their role. They were agreeably sensitive and articulate. “We are experimenting communication with silence,” they said. On being asked, how many people understood their work, they answered, “There were only a few who heard and understood Buddha.” One of them added reassuringly, “Today the whole world listens to him.”SD Desai
Times of India

Contemporary art concerns on art and artistic merit

In 2003, the Stuckism international gallery exhibited Eddie Saunders' shark under the title "A Dead Shark Isn't Art". The shark was first put on public display two years before Hirst's 1991 "the physical impossibility of death in the mind of someone living" in his Shore ditch shop, JD Electrical Supplies. The Stuckists questioned why Hirst's shark was recognized as great art while Eddie's, which was on exhibition for two years beforehand, wasn't. They suggested that Hirst may have got the idea for his work from Saunders' shop display.

When considering the failure of Stuckism and the astronomical success of Damien Hirst, the idea of 21st-century art, or the end of 20th-century art, becomes an issue for society. The British art scene in the nineties brought about a blast of new ideas to art lovers worldwide with controversial works such as a split-open pregnant cow in formaldehyde and a bed with dirty linen and used condoms by Tracy Emin.

The advertising czar Charles Saatchi played a significant role in promoting British art, particularly Damien Hirst. The most significant change brought about by these new idioms for British art was the undefined meaning. Materials, ideas, colours, forms, and their presentations all underwent a drastic makeover, tearing apart the taboos of conventional society.

The impact of these new art movements was tremendous in Britain, Europe, and America. Damien Hirst, in particular, became a cult figure of this new idiom. However, the unconventional nature of this art and the artists behind it made it a complex phenomenon challenging to accept for the world.

Social conventions were challenged, and the boundary between sarcasm and madness often became blurred. For instance, in an interview with BBC News Online on 10 September 2002, Hirst made controversial remarks about the 9/11 World Trade Center attack, comparing it to an artwork in its own right, which sparked debate and controversy.

The controversial comment sparked public outrage and forced him to issue a statement through his company, Science Ltd, apologizing for upsetting public sentiments. This incident exemplifies the evolving nature of contemporary art.

Hirst's public recognition of specific images as art draws attention to the media's longstanding use of similar photos. For decades, media outlets have circulated and profited from wartime and disaster photographs, while governments have employed these images for propaganda due to their powerful visual impact. For example, during the Iraq occupation, the USA used the coverage of "shock and awe" to garner public support.

However, when an artist like Hirst attributes artistic merit to such images, it causes public dismay. While the public acknowledges the use of distressing visuals for media agendas, they expect art to represent "something else."

Hirst's art challenges this conventional sensibility, prompting public debate about whether it embodies eccentricity and creativity or mere gimmickry and manipulation. This discussion has reverberated globally, including in India.

In India, numerous movements and practices have emerged concurrently. Still, some artists have achieved unprecedented global recognition and success by embracing this new artistic approach.

Many emerging artists have defied traditional Indian art norms, with some even incorporating themselves into their art (such as Chintan Upadhyaya from Baroda and Subodh Gupta from Bombay). The concept of Indian art has transcended national boundaries. The proliferation of new communication channels, such as television and the internet, along with the growing affluence of Indians worldwide, has transformed the behaviour of Indian art since the 1990s.

This new approach is portrayed as a "migration of Indian art to universal art." Notable artists like Krishnamachari Bose, TV Santosh, Riyas Komu, Chintan Upadhyaya, Partho, Biju Patwardhan, Sudarshan Shetty, Shibu Nateshan, Subodh Gupta, Bharati Kher, Jitish Kallat, Atul Dodiya, Anju Dodiya, and Sheela Gowda, among many others, have been at the forefront of this revitalization of Indian art.

Many people have become world travellers and foreign university residents. There have been changes in the concept of art galleries as well. Gallery owners are no longer just wealthy housewives passing the time; they have become highly professional financial consultants who can influence markets. They have created global opportunities and large spaces for artists to experiment and explore new ideas and materials with greater possibilities.

New markets have emerged due to changing affluence and economic development. Art is now sold at prices and auctions unimaginable a decade ago. In India, there has been a newfound acceptance of art by the public. More media and public spaces have become available for art and artists.

However, a new reality has also emerged. The language of this new art is no longer purely Indian and has been accused of catering to Western sensibilities.

Art is mainly happening in metros and showcased to metros, or at least to a specific segment of society that speaks English better than their mother tongue.

It is important to note that the drastic change in sensibility is not limited to fine art. The changing scenario of emerging financial affluence and global reach has changed the priorities of fine and performing arts in India. Multiplex films, designer dresses, food tastes, architectural concerns, and financial expectations have all undergone changes.

While this new reality was taking shape in society, a contradicting reality was also emerging. This is evident in the various counter-movements that have arisen, such as objections to MF Husain paintings, the Baroda MSU fiasco, the Mumbai art gallery instance where a painting had to be withdrawn due to nudity, the anti-dance bar movement in Mumbai, anti-jeans or anti-cyber cafe movements in Lucknow, and the anti-Valentine's Day movements by Shiva Sena. Many people find these new aesthetic idioms to be outrageous in their culture. However, awareness of cultural idioms is a debatable issue.

Whether art should be responsive to a national consciousness or have universal appeal has been debated since the 1920s. We argue that art needs to be responsive to national consciousness. In that case, we must acknowledge that such movements in India have often resulted in regressive fundamentalism. On the other hand, if art is only for universal appeal, we must consider what is truly universal. Oriental art only gained importance in the Western world when the West adopted such practices. Therefore, the question of universal art should be thoroughly discussed in India.

The initial acceptance of merely imitating Western sensibilities on the global stage will ultimately degrade Indian art. Similarly, today's celebrated Chinese art often needs more versatility and aesthetics of traditional Chinese culture instead of producing second-rate European copies.

The changing world order has also affected the way art is considered. Today, the idea of art as a mere investment has become prevalent worldwide. Artists are often forced to choose between art as a representation or subject and whether art is a career to shock or a practice of self-expression.

With the radical developments in communication, mediums, and avenues for art, ambiguity has contributed positively to art with inferences and experiments. However, it has yet to come to a clear conclusion. The ongoing debate over practice versus shocking has seen some artists, such as Van Gogh and Gauguin, choosing practice over shocking, while others, like Dali, prioritized showcasing over practice.

Practising is often more critical than shocking as a moral reminder. Famous artists like Picasso and Goya even created noteworthy works that served as moral reminders, which usually stood out as the best among their creations. This doesn't mean that these were the best works in terms of skill, craftsmanship, and composition, but instead that they stood apart in their response to human expression in treatment—the true meaning of art.

In today's world, art is often judged based on its price, raising whether art is meant to shock or is a practice. This is important because auction manipulations can influence price tags, creating shock waves in art. Artistic shock waves are typically performances similar to the ultimate performance in cinema. The most successful revenue generator today may become outdated in a few years, while the works of Eisenstein, Vittorio De Sica, Akira Kurosawa, and Chaplin will be revered for ages to come.

The film can be very profitable in its short life with a mass subscription. With its limited subscription, art will never make as much profit. We must either accept art as an investment that requires well-defined artistic merit or risk creating a 'tulip bubble' of 1637.

The answer to our question, "Art – shockwave or is it a practice", will then be self-explanatory.

As it has always been, the biggest challenge remains the question of artistic merit. Most often, merit is assessed based on the artist's success in terms of name, practice, marketability, and the money the artist commands in society.

Idea of form in art

Destruction of the point births the line,
Dimension brings the real to life.
Yet the point holds no dimension—
From point to line,
The before, the after, and the in-between remains unknown.

Beyond lies concern, the limitation becomes real.
Virtue transforms to the visible,
The visible becomes the known.
But when do they begin?
When do they end?

A question becomes a question,
Only when the questionable exists.
So, when do they exist?
...Form!"

When we delve into the chapters of human evolution, the concept of form emerges as a fundamental aspect, potentially predating the notion of the divine or the primordial, depending on one's viewpoint. It's not that the idea of God overrides all other forms as the pinnacle of human evolution, but rather that God symbolizes faith. This specific form has been practised and manifested across millennia. The question of "What is a form?" about God may not be as elusive as it seems. While the concept of God may wrestle with its own formative questions, it has nevertheless been a constant form within human history.

An idea can take on the status of a form under particular conditions, expressed through frameworks like dimensions, constructs, or continuums. Yet, when removed from these conditions—forms in themselves—the inquiry into "how a form develops" becomes a complex enigma that challenges physical and metaphysical understanding. Historically, intellectuals have addressed the question of form through two broad approaches.

One group, like Sage Kanada in India or the atomists in the West, attempted to reduce the universe to its most basic elements. Conversely, scientists and artists have sought to understand the cosmos through its relationships, dimensions, and entanglements, expressed through theories such as relativity, quantum mechanics, string theory, or even aesthetic forms in art. The inherent complexity in these explorations lies in the fact that they often use one abstract form—yet to be fully comprehended—to explain another. Suppose intelligence is the application of experience to potentialities based on empirical knowledge. In that case, the notion of abstract forms explaining other abstract forms becomes a paradox in human comprehension.

Language's structural limitations—where letters or words may not carry full meanings—may help explain humanity's fascination with order and form. Intelligence, absent thought, is merely an experience. Without language, thought cannot exist; without thought, there can be no structures or forms. Setting aside metaphysical debates about the origins of space and primordial intelligence, human evolution clearly demonstrates a profound relationship between form and intelligence.

Communication, one of the earliest forms developed by our ancestors, was not a strictly intellectual act but an evolutionary response. Similarly, physical forms—like art—are not static; they are nature's evolutionary experiments. However, these modifications become "artistic" only when framed within the structures of human aesthetic thought. Thus, from a human perspective, a form comes to life in the mind rather than in its physical existence. This mental isolation and selection of one form from many marks the first step in shaping human intelligence.

Revisiting the earlier claim that "intelligence without thought is merely experience," we now see a deeper insight into how language underpins thinking. Without language, there can be no conceptual forms, and intelligence remains only an isolated experience.

As such, the human quest for form—from the earliest days of animism to contemporary virtual reality, from primitive realism to abstract expressionism—has been a continuous thread. Like any aspect of human culture, the art of form is inseparable from the intellectual and evolutionary process that creates it. Whether through geometric precision or the free-flowing movements of surrealism, the pursuit of form tells the story of how humans have engaged with their world for thousands of years. Form, both physical and intellectual, is the art of human life.

Primitive art and possible concerns

From the time immemorial, among the dark cave interiors, when the first impressions of visual explanations were left behind by our ancestors, certainly the formations of an objectivity without intellectual trimming, should have been a reason for concern.  As noted by Gorden Childe, recent discoveries point out that   "many of these litho age foot prints of civilization are not explorations of naïve mind but were training laboratories of an inquisitive mind and later date were the submissions of a faith". There are evidence many of these drawings were rejected by erasing or crossing , indicate a preexisting idiom of language or an hierarchy and structure  of depiction. Also there are evidences of real impressions of spears and weapons in the drawings of hunting scenes indicating may be a possible sorcery or black magic. Since geometry was still a distant possibility for them, it is also not improper to assume that their primary concerns could not have been the spatial composition.

In this context the Indian myth of development of aesthetics on visual art becomes significant. It says boredom brought forth the concept of aesthetics to human civilization. It is quite evident from initial days of litho age to later date, as the social priorities changed from individual survival to collective social existence in the due course when the drawings were grown from natural depiction to a complex imagery, the gradual development of aesthetics completely was in tune with socio cultural development. Although when there is very little conclusive chronology to write the prologue, it is very difficult to derive a definite idea of historical past,  according to historians, studies show between falsification and facts,  we may be able to broadly classify the development of primitive art into three stages: primitive naturalism, Animism and geometric.

According to Arnold Hauser,(1) “primitive naturalism advances from liner faithfulness to nature, in which individual forms are still shaped somewhat rigidly and laboriously, to a more nimble and sparkling, almost impressionistic technique. It is a process shows a growing understanding of how to give the final optical impression increasingly pictorial, instantaneous and apparently spontaneous form." His observation is very significant given the fact that these drawings were remarkable in skill in terms of stroke quality and rendering to emulate a perfect realism. They drew what they saw, although like a casual photographer, their concerns had never gone beyond the idea of capturing the view. Here the question of primitive art becomes important because. After all why did it came into existence remains a big question.

What was the idea of these visual impressions?
Considering most of these drawing are found among the darkest corners of the caves, an exhibition of an artistic expression or decoration could not have been their primary motive.  Also, many of these drawings were superimposed one on the other destroying the decorative effect. Walter Benjamin(2) in his study says “ There are in fact, as has been noted, two different motives from which works of art are derived. Some are produced simply in order to exist, others to be seen. As far as the idea of “to be seen”, H Obermailer (3) argues that “ in these pictures we find – as, for instance in Trois-Freres- combined animal masks which would be quite unintelligible without a magical intention”. In this context it is also important note that if the idea of some arts were for the purpose of magic or worship, there should have been a pre-existing awareness among the race about social and physical limitations or practice. Otherwise the idea of prayer would not have been arisen. It also indicates a systemization of intelligence and communication in society to the extent an ability to concede to “fate” or “natural and super natural” came into existence.

Here it is significant to note that although there is evidence to prove the existence of magical world of paranormal in primitive art, so far we are unable to find any such conclusive evidence to indicate the existence of the magical world of illusion in those drawings. Archeological evidence across the world clearly establishes the fact that throughout the early Paleolithic period there was hardly any style change actually took place in depiction of visuals . But evidence from across the world proves during the Neolithic period with the emergence a progressive social structure, the human civilization did make the beginning of experiments in visual art.

But during the Neolithic period, with the emergence of a progressive social structure, human civilization did start an experiment with the idea of visual representation. Geometric patterns started to appear to represent forms and linguistic symbols came into effect by organizing space and they learned to isolate specific forms from rest. Human figures with triangular, semicircular and strait lines, started evolving with better details like dotted eyes, nose, weapons and breasts. But Gorden Childe(4) reminds us “ It should not be seen this change to settled community life as an all too precisely demarcated turning point and thinks that on the one hand, even the Paleolithic hunter dwelt, in the same caves probably for generations and on the other hand, that primitive land economy and cattle rearing were connected in the early stages with a periodical change of a certain time.”The gradual progression of wild insecure human to more progressive farmer and cattle breeder also had transformed human relationship and conditioning of visual art. They have acquired more effective command over communication and expression. But unfortunately also grown were the concerns for losses and destruction that they had to encounter in life. Most of these fears and concerns were attributed to the consequences of metaphysical manifestations by those limited intelligence. The birth of spirit, separated from physical body was one such development.

At this point in time, organically, a vertical division started to evolve in human life, such as Good and bad, visible and invisible, mortal body and immortal soul, and so on and so forth, and the list began to grow endlessly. Also divided was the idea of art. Two distinctive streams of art- one ritualistic and another decorative came into prominence. Arnold Hauser (5) says, “ The magic view of the world is monistic. It sees reality in the form of a simple texture, of an interrupted and coherent continuum, but animism is dualistic. It forms its knowledge and beliefs into two world systems. Magic is sensualistic and holds fast to the concrete; animism is spiritualistic and inclines to abstraction. Further another historian Herbert Kuesus thinks this is one prime reason why Paleolithic art reproduces things true to life and reality, while Neolithic art appears a stylized and idealized super world to ordinary empirical reality.”.The work of art was to retain visual impressions or duplication. Rather, the frontiers were expanded, forms were explored, and the ability of rational thinking for abstraction started exerting a major role in human expressions. Their visual domain surpassed the narrow confrontational idioms to attempt to understand a comprehensive existence. However, the ability of rational thinking also contributed materially to human society in comparison to animistic explorations in a big way. One such great achievement surely was geometry. The implications of geometrical innovations were so profound in human history that no other style could sustain such a long period in history of art as a major force. It continued in art from BC5000 till BC500.
 Ref:
1. Arnold Hauser, The social history of art, P:5
2.Walter Benjamin 1936,V,P.45
3 H Obermailer Altamira, pp -10-20.
4. Gorden Childe – Man makes himself – P 80
5. Arnold Hauser, The social history of art, P:15

Key issues design community is preoccupied

Throughout history, humanity has continuously adapted to the evolving times and their consequences, necessitating reformation or decisive action to meet functional needs. From ancient cave dwellers to modern gadget enthusiasts, the complexities of human life demand equally intricate functional adjustments.

Every individual operates on two levels in life: the personal and the social. It's essential to recognize that people often navigate both simultaneously. Thus, whenever collective or individual issues are addressed for functional sustainability, the tension between the individual and the collective arises. Without addressing this tension, the breakdown of relationships due to communication failures will persist as a significant issue for humanity.

Mahatma Gandhi's statement, "You must be the change you want to see in the world," underscores this reality. The question of when an individual ceases to be just an individual and becomes a social factor isn't merely a matter of theory or practice. It's a clash between competing ideas and practices—communism vs. capitalism, religion vs. spirituality, science vs. faith, technology vs. aboriginal practices, automation vs. manual skills, production vs. sustainability, industrialization vs. ecology—the list goes on endlessly, like a multi-headed hydra with many facets.

When the subject of design cannot be isolated from its abstract-art holistic context, designers face multifaceted challenges in their work. On one hand, they grapple with the clash of ideas, and on the other, the collision of practices. Consequently, designers often find themselves taking ideological or practical stances in their work. Since every problem presents both vital ideological and practical contradictions, it becomes a significant challenge for designers to take a clear position in their design.

Furthermore, many of these ideological and practical issues undergo continuous shifts in meaning over time. As the meaning changes, some of the previously viable solutions themselves become problematic. History bears witness to numerous such developments. Setting aside the issue of changing meanings, let's focus on the challenge of taking a position in design.

Allow me to share an anecdote to illustrate this complexity: Once, a person was rushed to the hospital after a severe accident, leaving him with multiple wounds on his limbs and torso. In excruciating pain, he begged the doctor to save him. The doctor, assessing his condition, had to deliver a difficult message—the patient might need to have both his hands and legs amputated. Shocked, the patient asked if he would survive after such a procedure. After a lengthy pause, the doctor, with sympathy, replied that he didn't know, but it would certainly relieve his pain.

In today's world, every designer, whether in social or industrial fields, is compelled to adopt a position similar to that of the doctor—sympathetic and desiring to provide solutions. However, they can only offer pain relief based on their individual judgment, and regardless of their decision, there will be consequences.

Crucially, like the doctor, designers must earn their livelihood from these situations to sustain their practice. Hence, Mahatma Gandhi's words resonate: "You must be the change you want to see in the world."

Idea of faith and its development in Greek Philosophy- the origins of Christian and Islamic faith

Idea of faith and its development in Greek Philosophy:the origins of Christian and Islamic faith

By

Narendra Raghunath

Email: narendraraghunath@gmail.com

Scope of study/Structure: To historically understand the validations of philosophical arguments that shaped up western philosophy, Christianity and Islam in particular 

Philosophy to a certain extent is an idea developed by human civilisation in their effort to make a better understanding of his or her life. Ideas are usually built upon viewpoints and all viewpoints are to a great extend  a protest against one another. Aristotle says man is an animal that speaks. What he must have tried to explain is the fact that human is the only earthen creation that is capable of expressing an idea not only through verbally but also through a structurally coherent and rationally prudent manner.

Early Greek philosophy was not a focused effort on human centric living; rather they all were attempts by intelligentsia to seek the cosmic identity for human existence. The Homeric epics gave us pictures of the great adventurous years of early Greek settlements of 1400 BC when northern tribes conquered Greek peninsula. Sophists, the creation of subsequent development of social changes brought forth by the trade and commerce in cities like Athens with its democratic experiments could be construed as the first pragmatic effort of western civilization to address the issues of life through questioning. Sophists although detested at the later years by all and severely attacked by Socrates, but had introduced a new methodology of addressing issues of life “through justification and argument about cause and concerns where victory is important than truth” since victory is power to coerce the viewpoint.

Thales argued the world is for, from and full of God, while atomists denied its existence. Parmenides and his followers believed that all are immobile while Heraclitus argued all are in flux. These confusions of reality with not much of a material concern of living, led Protagoras to propagate “a human-centric philosophy of Sophists”. He argued a thing is either is or is not, nothing beyond. His view of world was simple. I believe, I experience, I feel so it is.

If one does not have the ability to hear, however one may try to explain sound to that person, the sound not exist for that individual. For this individual world does not require anything that has to do with sound; no creation or destruction. So one must create a world of his own according to his natural condition for living, including justice and community. This is a natural process. Protagoras argues that any artificial build-up against this natural order will not sustain or ultimately will crumble. But Protagoras interprets the “condition” also as “a virtue one needs to learn to a degree in order” to identify. From childhood one is forced by reward or punishment into an invented pattern of action (morality and ethics) to live together.

Sophists were skeptical of divine, they disavowed any knowledge of divine, whether they exist or not, “since many obstacles on the path, obscurity of the subject and shortness of life”. (At the end most of the Skepticism treatises were burnt at the market of Athens)

Protagoras believed, since all our subjects are realized or experienced through five sensory organs, the existence of a relative subjectivism proves that individual as virtue of existence is a measure of all these. Elaborating this conditioning, “everything” is either known or experienced by the sensory organs; hence to maximize one’s existence, maximizing the experience is important.

For example to keep the sweetness of sugar relished we will have to keep on consuming it or to seek the warmth in winter we will have to keep on wearing sweaters. The best way of maximization is exclusivity or monopoly. It is the fruit of authority or power. Hence Protagoras argues the “aim of an argument is not truth but victory”.

But unlike early Sophists, who had the notion of universe of immobility of confusion of transition (for example when we division a motion as static periods of continuum in other words for example in a moving image of car chase, even as the car races the frames remain static frame by frame) Socrates believed , that like light from sun gives us vision during daytime, reality of life is the product of collaboration of Universal components not entirely of human produce.

He argued just as our bodies are composed of the same matter which is found throughout the Universe, so must our reason be part of Universal cosmic reason. Hence he argues against the Hippias’s doctrine that denies as a conformist Sophist, a universal validity for traditional laws. Socrates insists a universal conformity to law by the community, since community itself may act differently at different instances, yet it remains a community with certain laws that govern them together (or may be the identity).

Socrates also rejected the Sophists’ idea expressed by Glaucon that social restraint is a necessary evil. He argued it is a necessary good, since as per his argument of interdependence in collective motion, to avoid excess of individual maximisation that will cause a distortion for the collective interdependence that sustains society, a social restraint is necessary and good to maintain the order.

Socrates was against democratic election. He argued what will happen if same methodology is applied in selection of architects and navigators. His idea was not the rule of dictator, but was that of rule of philosophical judiciary which is not keen to rule. A resembling argument could be found in Lao-Tzu when he says, “When master governs, the people are hardly aware that he exists…If you don’t trust people you make them untrustworthy… The master doesn’t talk he acts; when his work is done the people say ‘amazing we did it all by ourselves’.”

Owing to his conviction of innate order of society, Socrates had an invincible belief in divine. Socrates believed unlike the atheist interpretation of God by Sophists, this precious centre of human life acting as a primary guiding force is immaterial, invisible, known only through its effects and is not made up of atoms. This non physical soul that manifests effects through physical body has since then been the one great issues of western thought. Individual is mortal with a short life span, but in this individual, the soul precipitates the effects and development. This one argument led western society down to present day to make the human body as the most important Constituency.

Plato argues in Republic, through highly disciplined and developed system of education individual can live well in accordance with reason and virtue. For him democracy was a lawless rule of crowd. Aristotle also accepts the idiom per se though developed into five methods of rule, including monarchy and aristocracy. But Aristotle clearly differentiates logic from philosophy.

Aristotle argues human mind is capable of reaching a conclusive knowledge about physical things but at the same time it would be difficult to evolve a precise knowledge about metaphysical subjects like mind, God and soul. Aristotle agrees with Plato and Socrates that the order exhibited in nature cannot be understood without the knowledge of the first pure intelligent source (in simple terms the creator- God) of order.

For Plato the knowledge for an act (practical knowledge) must be directed by a theoretical wisdom. For example, these days the choice of one’s area of study is often guided by the career options one wants to pursue. This practical decision often can be motivated by the suggestions or recommendations by friends, elders or may be determined by the socio-economic condition. In some other instances, it can even be based on how one wants to pursue one’s own life. This knowledge that precipitates the practical action when possessed by the self (own idea of how to pursue one’s life) or not possessed by self (recommendations and suggestions from others) is a theoretical guidance in nature. Hence, argues Plato, practical knowledge is subordinate to theoretical knowledge as a practical action could only precipitated by a theoretical knowledge.

For Plato this is implicit while for Aristotle it is explicit, because Aristotle firmly believed that all practical knowledges that are concerned with concrete actions are under human control. He believed in reason as primordial manifestation of source of power for better existence. He argued, along with Socrates and Plato, that for a better society, social restraint is good. Hence the virtue should be inculcated through education from formative years of childhood.

Conclusion

The establishment of reason as primordial source of force for better existence by Socrates, Plato and Aristotle was a great contribution to humanity-Intelligence as a path of analysis that is empirically accurate and profound for knowledge.

Influences of Greek thought on future religious tradition

Due to the concept of pure first order, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle clearly led the polytheistic cults to monolithic direction that at later date exerted an influence on Islamic and Christian monotheism. Subsequent to Alexander’s empire building for Rome and other trade related voyages brought forth lot of traditions and knowledge to later Hellenistic and Roman periods. During 4th century BC schools of Plato began to interpret Socrates method of questioning in purely negative sense and Pyrrhos founded skeptical order which received able followers across the world during subsequent centuries. It remained active till AD 150.

Atomist materialism established by Democritus and its ethical corollary of hedonism were maintained by earlier Cyrenaic school (5-4 century BC) and later on by Epicurus and Lucretius. From their point of view, man is made of tiny materials lost in chaos of atoms moving through void. The swirl of atoms is neither controlled by intelligence nor is it is fixed by law. Higher divine beings are dwelling in outer space, hence have no consequence to human life. So it is possible for free will and ethical decisions. Furthering the argument Epicurus identified goodness with pleasure. He argued when we are alive death does not exist and when we die we do not exist so why should death be a predicament in life? His argument survived till the fall of Rome.

In opposition to hedonism, taking inspiration from Socrates and Plato few thinkers established Stoicism and it persisted till the fall of Rome. They argued pleasure and goodness were sharply distinctive in existence and at times even opposed to each other. Goodness is the product of virtue and virtue is from Knowledge. There is always room for choice; even at death we have the choice. Stoic sages argued that we can sacrifice pleasure for goodness and duty. This was beyond the teaching of Plato and Aristotle. Stoic influence of life in accordance with nature gave birth to the idea of “Natural law”.

After the closure of Plato’s school by Emperor Justininan in AD 529 some scholars combined Plato’s ideas with Aristotelian elements to give birth to “Neo Platonism”.

Combining both the arguments they built the philosophy, whereby advancing Plato’s confidence of human ability of knowing God, they argued that the pure first order is supreme and that we cannot attribute quality and quantity to it as that itself is the quality and quantity. Being quality and quantity, perfection and imperfection manifests in itself – the supreme. They took on a dim view of social life. Every individual should attain salvation and for that one should exercise certain moral and civic responsibilities including prayer and devotion. Then one would attain freedom from body and unity with God- the salvation. St. Augustine was greatly influenced by this and played a major role in the medieval Christian thought.

By 8th century most of Plato’s and Aristotle’s books were translated into Arabic and hence exerted crucial role in Mohammedan thought. Many of the neo-Platonic ideas were taken from very different contexts resulting in the development of new philosophical schools. Avicenna (980-1037 ad) and Averroes (1126-1198) presented two great influential works.

Reference :

1. Concept of Man, Edited by PT Raju, Dr. Radhakrishnan,

2. Routledge Philosophy guide to Plato and the Republic- Nickolas Pappas: Routledge :Tailor and Francis group

3. Nicomachean Ethics:Edited by Roger Crisp: Cambridge text on History of Philosophy

4. Spinoza :Michael Della Rocca: Edited by Brain Leiter: Routledge :Tailor and Francis group

5. Oxford hand book of ethical theory: Edited by Paul K moser: Oxford University press

6. Reasons and the Good:Roger Crisp:Clarendon press:Oxford

7. The story of Philosophy: Will Durant

8. Ancient Greek Literature: Krishna Chaitanya: Orient Longmans

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